Anselms Ontological Argument

Anselms Ontological Argument In this essay I shall describe Anselms ontological argument and look at how it may prove Gods existence. I will then go on to look at criticisms of the argument from both Gaunilo and Kant to see if they can show that the argument does not work and if not, why not. The core of Anselms ontological argument uses a reductio ad absurdum structure to attempt to prove the existence of God. He does this by showing that if the negation of the conclusion is followed then this leads to absurdity (a false or nonsensical conclusion). Anselms argument is as follows: If therefore that than which nothing greater can be conceived exists in the understanding alone [and not in reality], then this thing than which nothing greater can be conceived is something than that which a greater can be conceived. And this is clearly impossible. Therefore, there can be no doubt at all that something than which a greater cannot be conceived exists in both the understanding and in reality. This quote is somewhat confusing due to the language used so a simplified version may be of some use. The argument can be seen as such (1) God is something which nothing can be greater than; God is the being of maximum greatness. (2)It is completely possible that God can exist within reality ; God, no matter whether he actually exists within reality, can exist within some circumstances, therefore God may possibly have existed within our world. (3)Now if something exists entirely and only within the constraints of the mind and does not exist in reality but is still possible then it is plausible that that something which exists only within the mind may have been greater. (4) Now imagine that God exists only within the mind and does not exist in our reality (this can be seen to be God not actually existing at all), this allows for the idea that there is a possible entity which is greater than God. (5)So it can be a possibility that there is a being or entity which is greater than God! (6)Because God is the greatest and there is nothing which can be greater than God (as stated in point 1) then this argument has shown that there is something which can be greater than that which nothing can be greater than! Because statement 6 makes no sense due to it being self contradictory God must exist not just in the mind but also at the same time in reality. This argument has been given in many different forms over time and I will cite one here to show that the interpretation given above is not too far removed from other interpretations. The following interpretation is given by Plantinga: God exists in the understanding but not in reality. (Assumption for reductio) Existence in reality is greater than existence in the understanding alone. (Premise) 3. A being having all of Gods properties plus existence in reality can be conceived. (Premise) 4. A being having all of Gods properties plus existence in reality is greater than God. (From (1) and (2).) 5. A being greater than God can be conceived. (From (3) and (4).) 6. It is false that a being greater than God can be conceived. (From definition of God.) 7. Hence, it is false that God exists in the understanding but not in reality. (From (1), (5), (6).) 8. God exists in the understanding. (Premise, to which even the Fool agrees.) 9. Hence God exists in reality. (From (7), (8).) This interpretation basically follows the same structure as mine and uses the reductio ad absurdum principle to prove Gods existence. Now we have seen how the argument works we must look at some criticisms of Anselms approach. One of the most successful and effective criticisms is given by Gaunilo. He attacked Anselms argument by stating that his reductio ad absurdum could be applied to many things and not just god. For this reason he believed that Anselms argument was not a valid or acceptable way to justify Gods existence. Gaunilo used the example of the greatest possible island (originally conceivable but we shall use possible for cohesions sake). He went on to apply Anselms argument to the greatest possible island to prove the existence of this fictional island using the same style of reasoning which Anselm used to prove the existence of God. Now if somebody told me that there was an island greater than all other islands ever I would have absolutely no problem understanding the words which they used or the concept they were attempting to divulge. But if they then went on to state that because I can imagine the island in my mind then the island must be possible then I would have serious doubts about thi s concept (and their sanity for that matter). What follows will be Gaunilos criticism placed into the format of Anselms reductio ad absurdum argument : (1) Best island is an island that nothing can be greater than; Best island is the island of maximum greatness. (2)It is completely possible that Best island can exist within reality; Best island, no matter whether it actually exists within reality, can exist within some circumstances, therefore Best island may possibly have existed within our world. (3)Now if something exists entirely and only within the constraints of the mind and does not exist in reality but is still possible then it is plausible that that something which exists only within the mind may have been greater. (4) Now imagine that Best island exists only within the mind and does not exist in our reality (this can be seen to be Best island not actually existing at all), this allows for the idea that there is a possible island which is greater than Best island. (5)So it can be a possibility that there is a land or island which is greater than Best Island! (6)Because Best island is the greatest and there is nothing whic h can be greater than Best Island (as stated in point 1) then this argument shows that there is a possible island which is greater than the island that no island can be greater than. Because statement 6 is self contradictory then Best Island must exist not just in the mind but in reality at the same time. This argument seems to show that Anselms argument to prove God can be used to prove a lot of seemingly ridiculous ideas, for example greatest possible bouncy castle or greatest possible goat. On first impressions it would seem as though this argument goes a long way to disproving Anselms argument for God but there is a problem with this. Gaunilos argument doesnt actually tell us what is wrong with Anselms argument; although it shows that seemingly ridiculous conclusions can be proved to be true it does not specify what is exactly is wrong or invalid about Anselms argument. It does not state that any of the premises are wrong and neither does it show the conclusion to be invalid. In fact if Anselms argument is looked at in terms of logic then there is nothing wrong with it at all. Although this is the case, Gaunilos criticism is still a fairly weighty one due its ability to prove absurd conclusions. As with every objection there is always a response so now lets look at some responses to Gaunilos weighty criticism. One of these responses focuses on the idea of the greatest possible island (or best island). It states that the greatest possible island can actually not exist. My conception of the greatest possible island almost certainly differs from your conception of the greatest possible island. For example I may prefer there to be a lot of animals on the island, dangerous and non dangerous and a lot of trees. Whereas you may prefer to only have non dangerous animals and mostly open areas on the island. This shows us that although subjectively there is the possibility of the greatest possible island on a large objective scale there can be no such thing. In other words there is nothing within the definition of an island that allows for maximum greatness within a certain island. The oxford English dictionary defines an island as a piece of land surrounded by water. Clearly there is nothing there which could allow for one island to be greater than all others. It mentions nothing of the depth of water surrounding the island, whether or not there are inhabitants of the island, the size of the island etc. This is not the same for God though. Anselm describes God as maximum perfection of which nothing can be greater. The idea of God cannot be pulled away from the description of God. God is that which nothing can be greater than. This differs from the greatest possible island as the idea of perfection is a separate concept which has be added to the idea of an island. So it seems that although Gaunilos objection on first inspection is a good one it misses the point that maximum perfection cannot be separated from the concept of God whereas maximum perfection can be separated from the concept of an island. The final objection that I will look at comes from Kant, the very man who coined the phrase ontological for Anselms argument. Kants argument works by rejecting premise (3) (if something exists entirely and only within the constraints of the mind and does not exist in reality but is still possible then it is plausible that that something which exists only within the mind may have been greater). Kant states that the Anselms argument is based on the idea that a God which exists is greater than a God which does not. Kant believes this to be false and confusing. In this objection Kant states that existence is not a property which can be possessed, or not possessed by an object. He goes on to say that existence, if it not a property, is a concept which refers or corresponds to something within our world (universe). In other words if something exists then there will be an example of the thing that exists in our world. A way to illustrate this is by giving the example of a ball. This ball is blue, round, fairly heavy and has the diameter of 50cm. Now if I say that this ball exists it does not add any properties to this ball, equally if I say that it doesnt exist it adds no properties to the ball. When I say that it exists I am merely saying that there is an example of this ball within our world. When one applies this to the argument we can see why Kants objection is so well accepted amongst those who reject the ontological argument. If existence is not a property then a God which exists and a God which does not exist are absolutely identical. Both are omnipotent, omnipresent and so on. If they are both identical then Anselm cannot claim that a God which exists is greater than a God which does not exist. If this is the case then the ontological argument fails as premise three is false! One response to Kants objection is that existence adds something to our conception of a subject. If I read about superman believing that he existed I would be very impressed with his powers and what he has done etc. If then I discover that superman does not exist I may be disappointed and my conception of him may change. This then allows for existence to alter my conception of a subject thus allowing for a God that exists to be different, slightly, to a God which does not exist. This response seems somewhat weak though and I believe that Kants objection still stands. To conclude I have found that, through Kants property based objection, Anselms ontological argument fails to provide a decent way of proving Gods existence. Because Existence cannot be seen to be a property then the ontological argument fails. Gaunilo also provides some criticism of Anselm through showing that the ontological argument can be used to prove all kinds of ridiculous conclusions (if one accepts that the idea of maximum perfection can be separated from the concept of God). So because the ontological argument fails to defend itself adequately against criticism I believe that it fails as a way to prove Gods existence.

What is love?

As each one of us may come to agree, love is just a simple four-letter word, yet it can have different meanings as much as it can be perceived in different ways. For some people, love is a simple expression of affection, while others may find it as a deep and genuine term that encompasses their feelings and emotions towards their loved ones. Moreover, as common knowledge, love is somewhat an entity that is felt by most, if not all, people through their parents, spouses, children, friends, and the so-called â€Å"divine love† from God. Nevertheless, while some people are certain that they know and feel the essence of love, others are still puzzled and are still not able to discern the exact meaning of love in their lives. Hence, this paper aims to have a substantial presentation of established facts and definitions pertaining to love, based on relevant and reputable references. LOVE†¦ LOVE†¦ LOVE†¦ What really is love? Let us try to look at Webster’s definition of love. According to Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, love is: strong affection for another [person] that rise out of kinship and personal ties; an attraction based on sexual desire, a concern for another individual and an affection; tenderness felt by lovers; a warm attachment, enthusiasm, or devotion for a person or object; a fatherly concern of God to humankind; a person’s adoration of God. (â€Å"love†) Based on the above definition, love is fairly defined as an expression, a behavior that is communicated b y one person to other people as a result of feelings and emotions that sprouted from relationships and ties. Also, love is a substantiation of faith and adoration of God, in response to how the supernatural being had shown His divine concern to humanity through His love. On the other hand, love can also be associated with sexual desires which must have originated from the attraction between lovers. Thus, the Merriam-Webster’s definition clearly depicts love as actions (expression and behavior) that are carried out by individuals as social beings and as creations of God. Perhaps, the most reliable and the most genuine definition of love can be found inside the bible, specifically the 13th chapter in the book of 1st Corinthians, which is widely known as the â€Å"love chapter†. And, the most significant parts of it are quoted as follows: Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, [and] it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, [and] always perseveres. Love never fails†¦ †¦And now these three remain: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love. (New International Version, 1 Cor. 13. 4-8, 13) Indeed, the bible’s definition of love categorically elaborates the distinct and laudable characteristics of genuine or true love, thereby highlighting the selflessness, trustworthiness, and genuineness of love. Consequently, tr ue to its purpose, this paper was able to exemplify the meaning of love through utilization of the most reliable literatures. For this reason, we can now therefore discern what love is†¦ Works Cited â€Å"love.† Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. Merriam-Webster Online. 21 April 2009 New International Version of The Holy Bible. Colorado Springs: International Bible Society, 1984. What is love? Love is defined in one Raymond Carver's famous short story entitled â€Å"Beginners†. Published in 1981 it is considered a s a timeless and influential piece of modern literature as it gives love a different kind of meaning. It is a collection of short stories of people falling in love, currently in love and wanted to go out of love. The masterpiece is written in such a way that readers will think as to what extent love can make or break lives and how to deal with this four letter word that makes the world go round. The book tackles different scenarios of love presented through series of stories which produces linkage to the meaning of the word love in the end. Though the plot revolves on a casual drinking conversation of two couples, it really does make sense in giving love different meanings. Love was illustrated in the short story in many profound ways. Characters presented in the story are different in terms of profession and personal background but they are all speaking about one thing, love. Men are from Venus and girls are from Mars as it may seem when readers try to digest the concept of Carver's story as a whole. He gives various instances that women are desperately being submissive to men to the extent that they are being hurt and abuse just to prove how they love their partners. I say this in the case of Carl who overly abused his partner. Terri on the other hand does not mind being victimized by love. Love can kill in the case of Carl who kept on beating his partner because this is his way of showing love. Terri on the other hand is blinded by emotion that is why she let her partner hurt her thinking that it is always about love. She is so selfless to the point that part of her being anorexic is caused by too much beating to her by Carl. Herb McGinnis on the other hand is a cardiologist that can cure the heart both literally and figuratively. He is described in the book as someone that can mend even the deepest wound caused by Carl in Terri's life. He has his own share of sentiment about love as he continuously supports his first wife and kids. His paternal love is described by Carver in the story as an undying devotion to give even his last single penny for the sake of love and support to raise his children. Dumb as it may seem since Herb is not only givinf support to his children financially but also to his first wife's lover as well. He cannot refuse doing it because the woman might deprive him from seeing their children. But the love story of Laura and the narrator himself tells another aspect of love on the other hand. Since they are just newly weds and are on the early part of their relationship, the perks and joys of feeling love is still at its best. But they kept on showing persistence in proving how they value each other everyday. In order to cultivate love to the younger couple, Herb narrated the story of the elderly couple who were both injured due to a car accident. The love story of the two elderly made the Beginners a story of love well defined. Love can be selfless or selfish, giving and forgiving, healing and forgetting. These are few of the underlying tones of the short story if we will dissect the whole concept of Beginners by Raymond Carver. It is indeed a story that is made for readers to value the meaning and live the feeling of love. What is love? Love is defined in one Raymond Carver's famous short story entitled â€Å"Beginners†. Published in 1981 it is considered a s a timeless and influential piece of modern literature as it gives love a different kind of meaning. It is a collection of short stories of people falling in love, currently in love and wanted to go out of love. The masterpiece is written in such a way that readers will think as to what extent love can make or break lives and how to deal with this four letter word that makes the world go round. The book tackles different scenarios of love presented through series of stories which produces linkage to the meaning of the word love in the end. Though the plot revolves on a casual drinking conversation of two couples, it really does make sense in giving love different meanings. Love was illustrated in the short story in many profound ways. Characters presented in the story are different in terms of profession and personal background but they are all speaking about one thing, love. Men are from Venus and girls are from Mars as it may seem when readers try to digest the concept of Carver's story as a whole. He gives various instances that women are desperately being submissive to men to the extent that they are being hurt and abuse just to prove how they love their partners. I say this in the case of Carl who overly abused his partner. Terri on the other hand does not mind being victimized by love. Love can kill in the case of Carl who kept on beating his partner because this is his way of showing love. Terri on the other hand is blinded by emotion that is why she let her partner hurt her thinking that it is always about love. She is so selfless to the point that part of her being anorexic is caused by too much beating to her by Carl. Herb McGinnis on the other hand is a cardiologist that can cure the heart both literally and figuratively. He is described in the book as someone that can mend even the deepest wound caused by Carl in Terri's life. He has his own share of sentiment about love as he continuously supports his first wife and kids. His paternal love is described by Carver in the story as an undying devotion to give even his last single penny for the sake of love and support to raise his children. Dumb as it may seem since Herb is not only givinf support to his children financially but also to his first wife's lover as well. He cannot refuse doing it because the woman might deprive him from seeing their children. But the love story of Laura and the narrator himself tells another aspect of love on the other hand. Since they are just newly weds and are on the early part of their relationship, the perks and joys of feeling love is still at its best. But they kept on showing persistence in proving how they value each other everyday. In order to cultivate love to the younger couple, Herb narrated the story of the elderly couple who were both injured due to a car accident. The love story of the two elderly made the Beginners a story of love well defined. Love can be selfless or selfish, giving and forgiving, healing and forgetting. These are few of the underlying tones of the short story if we will dissect the whole concept of Beginners by Raymond Carver. It is indeed a story that is made for readers to value the meaning and live the feeling of love.

Major Depressive Disorder And Major Depression - 1540 Words

Major Depressive Disorder and Major Depressive Episodes affect many across the country in various forms and degrees. Though many are affected by MDD/MDE most do not receive the help they need. A group that may not always be acknowledged in suffering from major depressive disorder/major depressive episodes are adolescents. Consequently, more often than not, adolescents do not receive a diagnosis or support with their struggles. Mental illness symptoms in adolescents may be dismissed for various of reasons, but can have a serious impact on various aspects of their lives.The struggles could be mitigated and managed by a public health approach. Public health approach may help to first collect the information on the extent of the issue. The†¦show more content†¦The National Survey on Drug use and Health found in 2014, 11. 4 percent of adolescents aged 12 to 17 (2. 8 million adolescents) had an MDE during the past year (SAMSHA). The pressures and struggles of being an adolescent c an only be exacerbated by major depressive episodes or even a diagnosis of major depressive disorder. Adolescents require support for their experiences and attention needs to be brought to their trials. . Major depression not only affects adolescents’ social and academic lives, but influence, directly, their actions and decisions as well. Adolescents can partake in numerous actions to cope with their feelings of depression such as taking drugs. The National Survey on Drug use and Health found that,Youths with a past year MDE in 2014 also were more likely than those without an MDE to be users of marijuana, nonmedical users of psychotherapeutics, users of inhalants, and users of hallucinogens in the past year (SAMSHA). The survey shows that MDE can put adolescents at a vulnerability to participate in risky behaviors. The world of drugs can be an outlet to deal with depression. This outlet though may even lead to a struggle with the very substances used to cope with their depres sion. The National Survey on Drug use and Health found as well that,†An estimated 340,000 adolescents aged 12 to 17 in 2014 had a co-occurring MDE and an SUD [substance use disorder] in the past year in 2014 (SAMSHA). The correlation of drug use andShow MoreRelatedMajor Depressive Disorder ( Depression )1020 Words   |  5 PagesMajor Depressive Disorder (Depression) is a mood disorder where a person has a constant feeling of sadness and complete loss of interest in everyday life. It is considered more serious than a case of the â€Å"blues† and might require long-term treatment. During major depressive disorder, the person thinks and behaves differently and may experience emotional and physical problems. Causes The exact cause has yet to be pinpointed. 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Major depressive disorder effects 6.7 percent of the adult American population; approximately 14.8 million Americans. It is a tragic fact that so many people suffer from depression at some point in their lives.?A diagnosis of major depressive disorder is given when a licensed counselor/ psychiatrist concludes that someone suffers from at least five of the nine symptoms listed in the DSM which are present for l onger than a twoRead MoreSummary Of The DSM-5877 Words   |  4 Pagesneed for a classification of mental disorders has been clear throughout the history of medicine. The American Psychiatric Association, the DSM was first published in 1984. The DSM-IV symptom criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) are somewhat lengthy, many studies showing that treatment providers have difficulty recalling all nine symptoms (American Psychological Association, 2010). The symptom inclusion criteria for the diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) have remained essentially unchangedRead MoreSueng-hui Cho1248 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿There are over 900 pages in the DSM-5, containing all of the mental disorders known to man. (APA, 2013, 165).One of those disorders is a severe case of depression known as â€Å"Major Depressive Disorder† or Major Depression. Major Depression currently affects 14.8 million adults in the United States alone. (APA, 2013, 165).Most adults that are diagno sed with major depressive disorder seek medical treatment or therapy. However, every year more than 1 million people commit suicide either before treatment

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd ) Essay - 1682 Words

The author is a student associated at the University of South Dakota The mind is a very interesting and special aspect of life. A person’s mind is the part of them that enables concentrated thought processes, feelings of emotion, and allows you to perceive the world in many ways. A person’s mind is always processing and receiving information of environmental stimuli, to determine what is happening around them. This is whether you are consciously trying to accomplish a task, un-consciously sleeping, or even if you’re thinking about memories you once had. Your mind is also very much like your body, and can become mentally sick if its exposed to enough mental trauma. Individuals who experience unpredictable, disastrous, and traumatizing events are often susceptible to developing a mental illness known as post-traumatic stress disorder or â€Å"PTSD†. People who are diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder often experience mind-numbing symptoms of traumatic flashbacks, emotional distress, and uncontrollable thoughts that c an make living life a realistic nightmare. It is very important that this disorder is treated by using correct public health interventions to help individuals once again regain control over their life. To successfully track down the correct interventions in treating the mental health of individuals who possess post-traumatic stress disorder, public health officials must first be aware of the many different symptoms that effect a personal mental health. 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One of the most prevalent disorders in our society but has only recently been acknowledged is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Proper and professional diagnosis and definitions of PTSD was first introduced by the American Psychiatric Association(APA) in the third edition of the Diagnostic andRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd ) Essay1162 Words   |  5 PagesSocial Identity, Groups, and PTSD In 1980, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD,) was officially categorized as a mental disorder even though after three decades it is still seen as controversial. The controversy is mainly founded around the relationship between post-traumatic stress (PTS) and politics. The author believes that a group level analysis will assist in understanding the contradictory positions in the debate of whether or not PTSD is a true disorder. 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